Core competencies for disaster search and rescue: an analysis of expert perspectives in the United States

Introduction

Disaster search and rescue (SAR) operations constitute one of the most complex and risky areas of emergency management, requiring rapid decision-making, coordinated teamwork, and the integration of diverse technical, medical, and interpersonal competencies. In recent years, the frequency and severity of both natural and man-made disasters have increased globally, placing an unprecedented burden on SAR personnel [1–3]. The United States, with its diverse hazard profile, including hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, wildfires, and industrial accidents, presents an operational environment in which SAR teams must demonstrate a high level of preparedness, adaptability, and resilience.

Current research emphasizes that effective SAR performance goes beyond technical proficiency to include situational awareness, safety and risk management, communication, and psychosocial support for survivors [4,5]. However, despite the acknowledged multidimensionality of SAR studies, there is limited empirical evidence regarding the precise set of competencies experienced experts deem necessary for successful disaster response. This lack hinders the development of standardized, competency-based and/or skill-based training frameworks applicable across institutions and contexts.

From an educational perspective, identifying these competencies is a critical step in designing curricula that align learning outcomes with the operational realities of disaster response. Competency-based and/or skill-based and/or skill-based education frameworks, widely adopted in other high-reliability professions such as medicine, aviation, and firefighting, emphasize the importance of defining clear, measurable skill and knowledge domains validated by subject matter experts [6,7]. In particular, Karacaoğlu’s skill-based disaster education and competency-based program development studies have inspired this research [8]. To address the fragmented nature of disaster competencies, this study utilizes the disaster literacy core skills (DLCS) framework as its fundamental conceptual framework. Originally designed to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and functional disaster response, the DLCS framework defines disaster literacy not merely as possessing information, but as the ability to access, understand, and, most importantly, apply core skills in high-pressure environments. Unlike traditional models that focus on institutional roles, the DLCS emphasizes a ‘skills-based’ approach by dividing competencies into practical, social, and adaptive domains. By applying this framework to the context of SAR, this research aims to verify whether these core literacy domains are aligned with the operational demands identified by field professionals. In the SAR context, such frameworks can serve to ensure that training programs systematically address not only technical abilities but also the cognitive, emotional, and psychomotor domains necessary for optimal performance in high-pressure environments.

Furthermore, the rapidly changing nature of disaster environments requires continuous improvement of SAR training programs based on real-world feedback from experts and practitioners [9–11]. Interprofessional collaboration, adaptability under uncertainty, and psychological resilience have emerged as critical success factors in contemporary emergency management [12,13]. However, these “soft” skills are often given less importance in formal training compared to procedural and equipment-based training, creating potential gaps in response team preparedness [14].

In this context, the current study aims to identify and categorize the core competencies required for disaster SAR operations as perceived by experienced professionals across the United States. By integrating quantitative frequency analysis with qualitative thematic analysis, this research aims to provide an empirically grounded, expert-informed competency framework. Such a framework can inform curriculum development, guide instructional design, and serve as a benchmark for program evaluation and policy formulation in SAR education.

While the disaster management literature has made significant progress in recent years, existing competency frameworks are fragmented and unevenly developed across disciplines. Systematic reviews such as Gallardo et al. reveal that most competency sets identified for disaster management and humanitarian assistance are predominantly geared towards the health sector, have limited cross-sectoral applicability, and are characterized by inconsistencies in terminology [7]. Similarly, Walsh et al. emphasize the critical role of clearly defined, consensus-based competencies in ensuring workforce readiness; however, like much of the existing literature, their study focuses primarily on healthcare professionals in disaster medicine and public health, with relatively little exploration of operational SAR roles [16]. Within specific professional fields, targeted reviews highlight the importance of domain-specific competencies, such as disaster plan familiarity, communication, and ethical decision-making in nursing [17] or micro-, meso-, and macro-level skills for social workers [18]. While these studies provide valuable frameworks, they remain profession-specific and do not fully encompass the interdisciplinary, field-level, and community-wide competencies required in SAR operations. Consequently, there is a clear gap in the literature for empirically derived, interdisciplinary competency models that integrate technical, operational, medical, security, communication, and resilience capacities specific to SAR contexts. This study addresses this gap by drawing on direct testimony from experienced experts and scholars to develop a comprehensive, skills-based, evidence-based competency framework that integrates academic theory with the operational realities of disaster response.

The primary objective of this study is to identify, classify, and conceptualize the core competencies required for effective SAR operations, as perceived by experienced experts. The primary objectives of the study are as follows:

To this end, this study aims to answer the following research questions:

The research aims to contribute to the development of standardized, evidence-based training programs that enhance the preparedness, operational efficiency, and overall effectiveness of disaster response efforts.

Method

This section summarizes the methodological framework used in identifying and conceptualizing the essential competencies required for SAR operations. A mixed-methods approach was adopted to capture both the prevalence of specific competencies and the core conceptual framework guiding expert assessments. By combining quantitative frequency analysis with qualitative thematic analysis, the study provided a rigorous, systematic, and application-based examination of SAR competencies.

Data analysis

Quantitative frequency analysis

The first stage of the analysis involved systematic content analysis of the interview transcripts. The skills reported by each participant were identified as discrete units of meaning and coded accordingly. Each skill was then counted across 19 interviews to determine the frequency of mention. This process generated a quantitative dataset representing the prevalence of specific competencies. The results were visualized using a bar chart (Fig. 1) to facilitate interpretation of the most salient skills.

Fig. 1. Frequency of search and rescue skills reported by experts.

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Thematic analysis

Following the frequency analysis, a thematic analysis was conducted to determine the conceptual structure underlying the identified skills. This process consisted of three stages:

1. Open coding – Initial codes were assigned to all skill references in the transcripts.

2. Axial coding – Related codes were grouped to form broader categories representing common conceptual elements.

3. Theme development – These categories were synthesized into five overarching themes: (i) technical and operational search and rescue skills, (ii) health and medical response skills, (iii) security and risk management, (iv) communication and coordination, and (v) psychological and physical resilience.

To ensure the objectivity of the thematic analysis, the two researchers independently coded the transcripts. Following the independent coding phase, the researchers met to compare their findings, discuss any inconsistencies in code assignments, and reach consensus on the final thematic construct. This collaborative, negotiated agreement process was used to minimize individual researcher bias and ensure that the themes accurately reflected expert testimony. NVivo 12 software was used to assist with data organization, retrieval, and coding consistency.

Discussion

The current study provides a comprehensive, evidence-based framework for SAR competencies by integrating both quantitative and qualitative analyses to capture the multifaceted nature of effective response operations. From an educational sciences and curriculum development perspective, these findings highlight the critical importance of aligning training programs with the operational realities as understood by experienced disaster management experts faced by SAR professionals.

Existing research in disaster response has repeatedly emphasized the need for a multidimensional skill set encompassing technical proficiency, situational awareness, and interpersonal competencies [1,2,5]. The current study’s identification of five core themes—Technical and Operational Skills, Health and Medical Response Skills, Security and Risk Management, Communication and Coordination, and Psychological and Physical Resilience—aligns with previous competency frameworks proposed for emergency management [12] while providing greater operational detail by basing categories on direct expert testimony. These findings also address several gaps noted in the previous literature. Systematic reviews of disaster management competencies have revealed that most frameworks are focused on the health sector, have limited cross-sectoral applicability, and lack operational specificity [15,16]. While profession-specific studies such as nursing [17] and social work [18] provide valuable domain knowledge, they lack the integrated technical, operational, communication, and resilience competencies necessary for SAR contexts. Furthermore, Gallardo et al. highlight persistent inconsistencies in competency terminology, emphasizing the value of the current study’s empirically derived, expert-informed thematic framework in providing conceptual clarity and cross-disciplinary applicability [15].

Based on these findings, several practical implications emerge regarding the integration of technological, medical, and community-based competencies in search and rescue training. In the context of “Communication and Coordination” (Theme 4), emphasized in the interviews, UAVs should now be considered a central component of coordination rather than merely an auxiliary tool. The training curriculum should present UAV operations not only as a technical skill but also under the discipline of “knowledge-based coordination.” This approach ensures that technological data is transformed into an academic decision-making protocol, preventing potential “mission conflicts” in the field. The “Health and Medical Intervention” (Theme 2) skills, most frequently highlighted by experts, should be population-sensitive rather than a homogeneous set of interventions. In particular, the diverse physiological needs of infants and children (Pediatric CPR) should be addressed with academic depth as an integral part of the medical intervention curriculum. This necessitates restructuring first aid training, presented under the heading “Practical Skills,” into “age-specific intervention strategies.” Community-based SAR components (Table 1) should be considered not merely as individual volunteering, but as a social extension of the “Communication and Coordination” theme. Programs like “Stop the Bleed” serve as an example of a “gradual skills acquisition” model for curriculum developers; academic training should include “social coordination” skills that integrate these time-sensitive interventions for the public into a professional SAR system.

Although community-based interventions in disasters are increasing in importance, direct and untrained participation in SAR activities can create serious security risks. Spontaneous unaffiliated volunteers (SUVs) arriving on the field without coordination with professional teams can jeopardize both their own safety and the institutional response [19]. Therefore, the “Practical” and “Social” skills included in the DLCS Framework only become effective with organized, trained, and coordinated participation. For volunteers to contribute to SAR, they must acquire basic skills (safe evacuation, first aid, coordination) through programs such as Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) [20]. Furthermore, organizations such as the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) in the United States include pre-licensed individuals in SAR processes within specific protocols. These models allow individuals to contribute to the post-disaster response while also becoming part of the system [21].

A significant portion of trauma-related deaths in disasters result from bleeding that cannot be stopped within the first 5 minutes. In this context, the “Stop the Bleed” program, developed in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Defense, the American College of Surgeons, and the Department of Homeland Security, is a short-term but highly effective training module aimed at enabling the public to perform these critical interventions [22]. In this program, based on Hartford Consensus reports, individuals learn skills such as tourniquet application, wound pressure, and the use of bleeding control devices [23]. These time-sensitive medical intervention skills, defined under the heading “Practical Skills” in the DLCS Framework, are critical for vital post-disaster interventions [24]. Expanding such short, intensive training programs for volunteers and first responders will strengthen the impact of DLCS in the field.

The practical, social, and adaptive skills defined in the DLCS Framework can be implemented through structured community-based training programs [25]. In this context, the CERT program, conducted by Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), is a successful example of increasing the applicability of disaster training in the field. The CERT program provides individuals with competencies in basic SAR skills, firefighting, basic medical intervention, disaster psychology, and the incident command system after a 20-hour training period. Additionally, topics such as personal protective equipment (PPE) use and volunteer safety are also included in the training, directly reflecting the skill sets defined in the DLCS Framework in the field. The program’s free and widespread accessibility allows volunteers to be integrated into the organized disaster response system [20]. This structure plays a vital role in the transition from individual awareness to collective response, reducing the risks posed by spontaneous responses.

In disaster situations, children and infants have physiologically very different emergency response needs than adults. Therefore, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) applications require different procedures depending on age group. Two-finger chest compressions are generally used for infants (0–1 year), while one-handed or two-handed techniques are used for children. Similarly, pediatric modes or pediatric pads should be used for AED devices [26]. Including age-specific intervention techniques under the “Practical Skills → First Aid” component defined in the DLCS Framework is crucial for effective disaster preparedness in the field. Organizations such as the American Heart Association [27] and the Red Cross offer age-segregated CPR/AED training modules, and integrating these modules into community-based disaster education programs is recommended.

In terms of training program design, the emphasis on first aid and basic life support, disaster communication protocols, and psychological resilience aligns with the competency-based and/or skill-based education literature in high-reliability professions such as firefighting, aviation, and healthcare [6,7]. Competency-based and/or skill-based education principles suggest that learning outcomes should be clearly defined, performance-based, and validated by expert consensus [8,28] ; these criteria were met by the empirically derived competencies in this study. Furthermore, the scaffolding of learning experiences from basic to complex tasks, as advocated in constructivist pedagogy [29,30], is directly applicable here.

The finding that scenario-based exercise planning and resource prioritization are less frequently cited by experts, despite their recognized importance in the operational literature [3], points to a potential training gap. This is consistent with observations in emergency training research that higher-order cognitive skills, such as decision-making under uncertainty, are often underemphasized compared to procedural exercises [14]. Integrating these competencies into training through simulation-based learning, tabletop exercises, and problem-based scenarios can address this gap while also enhancing metacognitive awareness.

Another theme identified in this study, interdisciplinary collaboration, is well supported in the disaster management literature as a determinant of operational success [4]. From a curriculum design perspective, integrating interprofessional education interprofessional collaborative education strategies, such as joint exercises among fire department, emergency medical services, law enforcement, and non-governmental organization personnel, can strengthen teamwork skills and foster a common operational language [13].

Furthermore, the theme of psychological and physical resilience aligns with a growing body of research advocating for the integration of stress inoculation training and resilience-building interventions into emergency response training [31,32]. Incorporating reflective practice, peer review, and mental health literacy modules into SAR curricula will not only ensure performance sustainability but also long-term well-being.

From a program evaluation perspective, the competency framework developed here provides a benchmark for assessing the comprehensiveness of existing SAR training programs. Mapping course content to identified themes can reveal redundancies or gaps in the curriculum, enabling iterative program improvements. Similar mapping methodologies have been successfully used in nursing and medical education to align training with professional competency standards [33].

Finally, the study contributes to the theoretical and practical development of competency-based and/or skill-based disaster training by bridging the gap between academic research and field realities. Integrating this framework into regional or national SAR training standards could standardize skill acquisition while allowing for contextual adaptation to specific hazard profiles and community needs.

Conclusion and Implications

This study presents a comprehensive and empirically grounded framework of the core competencies required for effective disaster SAR operations in the United States, compiled from nineteen expert opinions. By integrating quantitative frequency analysis with qualitative thematic analysis, the research identified not only the most frequently cited skills but also the broader competency domains within which these skills operate. The results highlight the dual necessity of technical and operational skills, such as debris search techniques, hazard detection, and equipment preparation, as well as health and medical response competencies, such as first aid, basic life support, and psychosocial needs recognition. Equally important are safety and risk management practices, effective communication and coordination mechanisms, and the psychological and physical resilience required to perform in highly challenging disaster situations. The multidimensional nature of these competencies highlights the need for integrated training programs that combine technical expertise with soft skills, resilience-building strategies, and interagency coordination protocols. Such a comprehensive approach can strengthen response team preparedness, increase operational efficiency, and improve survivor outcomes during disaster events. Notably, four competencies emerged as the most frequently cited by experts: first aid and basic life support, proficiency in radio and disaster communication protocols, personal safety and use of personal protective equipment, and psychological resilience in stress management. The prominence of these competencies highlights their dual roles as both immediate lifesaving measures and key elements of sustained operational effectiveness in high-stress disaster environments. By systematically mapping both the prevalence and thematic structure of disaster SAR competencies, this study provides a valuable foundation for developing competency-based and/or skill-based curricula, informing policy and resource allocation, and guiding future research to optimize disaster response performance. Ultimately, the findings contribute to a more resilient and capable disaster response team that is better equipped to address the complex and evolving challenges of real-world emergencies.

In conclusion, this study goes beyond a fragmented list of rescue tasks, offering an integrated, expert-validated competency framework based on the DLCS model. By synthesizing quantitative frequency data with the qualitative depth of direct expert testimony, the research demonstrates that effective SAR operations depend not only on technical proficiency but also on soft skills such as empathetic communication, multidisciplinary coordination, and psychological resilience. The findings highlight the need for modern SAR curricula to evolve into a multidimensional training model that aligns with the challenging operational realities of the field, incorporating emerging technologies such as drone-assisted coordination and specialized medical needs such as pediatric life support. Ultimately, this framework serves as a strategic benchmark for curriculum designers and policymakers, offering a structured path to improve response team preparedness, operational efficiency, and survivor outcomes in increasingly complex disaster environments.